The Delhi Sultanate

The Background of Delhi Sultanate

>> First Muslim Invasion-Mohammad Bin Qasim’s Invasion (712 AD): Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded India in 712 AD and conquered Sindh which became the province of Omayyad Khilafat.

>> First Turk Invasion-Mahmud Ghaznavi’s Invasion (998-1030 AD): Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni led about 17 expeditions to India to enrich himself taking away the wealth from India. In 1025 he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnath that lies on the coast in the extreme south of Kathiwar. The temple was destroyed in 1026 AD.

>> Second Turk Invasion-Mohammad Ghori’s Invasion (1175-1206 AD): Mohammad Ghori invaded India and laid the foundation of the Muslim dominion in India. He may be considered the ‘founder of muslim rule’ in India.

History of Delhi Sultanate Period

The period between 1206 A.D. and 1526 A.D. in India’s history is known as the Delhi Sultanate period.
During this period of over three hundred years, five dynasties ruled in Delhi Sultanate:

1. The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 CE)
2. The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 CE)
3. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1413 CE)
4. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 CE)
5. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 CE)

1. The Slave (Ghulam) or Mamluk Dynasty: 1206-90 AD

Qutub-ud-din Aibak (c. 1206 – 1210 CE)
>> Qutub-ud-din Aibak Founded Slave dynasty. He is also known as Mamluk Aibak and considered as the real founder of Muslim rule in India.
>> He became independent after Ghori’s death and began his rule in 1206 A.D.
>> He Made Lahore capital.
>> He is known as ‘Lakh Bakhsh’ or giver of lakhs as he gave a lot of liberal donations.
>> He died in 1210 while playing Chaughan or Polo.

Art & Architecture 
Aibak constructed 2 Mosques:
1. Quwat-ul-Islam (Delhi).
2. Adhai din ka Jhonpara (Ajmer)
He Started construction of the Qutub Minar dedicated to Sufi Saint, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakthiyar Kaki – later completed by Iltutmish.
He patronized writers like Fakhruddin, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi and Hasan-un-Nizami who wrote Tajul-Masir, the first official history of the Delhi Sultanate.
 
Aram Shah (1210-1211 AD)
>> After the death of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the Amir and Malik of Lahore put Aram Shah on the throne.
>> He served for a short duration and was considered to be a weak and worthless ruler.
>> lltutmish defeated Aram Shah and acquired the throne.

Shams-ud-din lltutmish (1211-36 AD)
>> He was slave of Qutubuddin Aibak and occupied the throne of Delhi in 1211 after deposing Aram Shah.
>> ltutmish was the second most prominent ruler of the Slave or Mamluk dynasty. The caliph of Baghdad titled him as “Sultan”.
>> He was very capable ruler and is regarded as the ‘real founder of the Delhi Sultante’. He made Delhi the capital in place of Lahore.
>> He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, by refusing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing.
>>. He constituted a group of forty (40) loyal Slave Amirs known as Turkan-i-Chahalgani also called as Chalisa.
>> He introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital). He organized the Iqta System and introduced reforms in civil administration and army, which was now centrally paid and recruited.
>> He initiated ‘Iqta-dar System’ in which lands were granted to nobles and his officers instead of salary.
>> lltutmish completed the construction of Qutub Minar which was started by Aibak.
>> He patronized Minhaj-us-Siraj, author of ‘Tabaqat-i-Nasiri’.

Ruknuddin: 1236
>> He was the son of lltutmish and was crowned by her mother, Shah Turkan, after death of lltutmish. He was deposed by Razia, daughter of lltutmish when he was out of capital to curb a rebellion in Avadh against him.

Razia Sultan (1236-40 AD)
>> Razia Sultan was the first and only woman ruler during the Sultanate and Mughal period. lltutmish considered all his sons ineffective for throne and entrusted her daughter Razia as his successor.
>> She was a great administrator as she maintained complete law and order during her tenure. >>Razia successfully defeated the rebellions of Multan, Lahore and Hansi.
>> She appointed Abyssinian slave, Jamal-ud-Din Yakut as Master of Horse (amir -i-akhur).
>> The Turkish noble nobles and clergy, who were primarily Turkish did not consider her as their ruler and conspired to kill her. Razia reign came to an end in 1240 AD.
>> There as a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainty of Razia. Razia accompanied by Yakut marched against Altunia. However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi.
>> In 1240, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana).

Bahram Shah: 1240-42
>> After Razia, Iltutmish’s third son Bahram Shah was put on the throne by the powerful Turkish council Chalisa.
>> He was considered only as de jure ruler, while Naib-e-mamlakat (the regent) was the de facto ruler.
>> Bahram Shah lost his life after his failed attempt to assert his authority once on the throne.

Masud Shah:1242-46
>> He was the son of Ruknuddin but was deposed after Balban and Nasiruddin Mahamud’s Mother, Malika-e-Jahan, conspired against him and established Nasiruddin Mahamud as the new Sultan.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmud: 1246-66 AD
>> Nasir-ud-din Mahmud was the younger son of lltutmish who was known as the Darvesi King.
>> He was considered to be kind hearted and God fearing ruler. He spent most of his times writing down verses of the Quran.
>> Unlike many of his predecessors and successors, Mahmud strictly followed monogamy. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud married daughter of Balban and placed all the power in the hand of his prime minister, Balban.
>>According to Ibn Battuta and Islami, Balban poisoned Nasir-ud-din and ascended the throne.
 
Ghiyasuddin Balban :1266-87 AD
 
>> Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, a Turkish slave was also known as Ulugh Khan, seized the power of dynasty after the death of Nasiruddin Mahmud.
 
>> During Balban tenure, the law and order in Delhi and doab region was in poor state. The Rajput zamindars had set up forts in the eastern region of Awadh and Ganga-Yamuna doab. Balban worked hard to elevate the position of Sultan and maintain the autocratic rule.
 
>> Balban’s reign is known as a period of consolidation rather than expansion. The law and order situation in the area around Delhi and the doab had deteriorated. The roads were infested with robbers and dacoits, so much so that even communication had become difficult.
 
>> To deal with these elements, Balban adopted a policy of blood and iron. In Mewat area, many were mercilessly pursued and put to death. In the areas around Badayun, Rajput strongholds were destroyed, the jungles were cut down, and colonies of Afghan soldiers were stationed to safeguard roads. By these harsh methods, Balban controlled the situation.
 
>> Balban’s tenure brought many administrative and military changes:
Balban introduced the ritual of Sijadah (Prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (Kissing the feet of monarch) in order to dignify the status of the Sultan.
 
>> Balban reorganised the army and maintained an efficient spy system.
Balban broke the power of Chalisa and resorted the prestige of the crown.
The growing authority of Balban alienated many of the Turkish chiefs. They, therefore, hatched a conspiracy (1253) and ousted Balban from his position. Balban was replaced by Imaduddin Raihan who was an Indian Muslim.
 
>> Balban’s heir was his older son Prince Muhammad Khan, but he died in a battle against Mongols in 1285.
 
>> After consolidating his power, Balban assumed the grand title of Zil-l-llahi (Shadow of God).
 
>> Balban propounded the theory of Niyamat-e-Khudia (representative of God). Balban had called himself as ‘Helper of Caliph’ in his inscription on the walls of the mosque at Garhmukteshwar .
 
>> Balban fortified his empire against Mongol invasion.
 
>> Balban ordered the nobles to stop the luxury living.
 
>> Balban introduced the Persian festival of Navroz to impress the Nobles and people with his wealth and power.
Balban patronized many Muslim scholars and gave shelter to many refugees from central Asia.
 
>> Balban established the military department (Diwan-i-Arz) and deployed army in different parts of the country.
 
>> Balban was considered to be the main architect of the Sultanate of Delhi mainly in terms of government and institutions.
Qaiqubad:1287-90
>> After his demise in 1287 AD, his grandson Qaiqabad succeeded the throne. During this period, the government affairs fell into disorder and the Nobles began to form factions in order to seize power. Jalaluddin Khilji, the Ariz-I-Mamalik (minister of war) gathered all the power in his hand and murdered Qaiqabad. This brought an end to the Slave dynasty in 1290 AD and the new dynasty of Khilji emerged under the leadership of Jalaluddin Khilji.

The Khilji Dynasty: 1290-1320 AD

The slave sultans were succeeded by a new dynasty of kings called the Khilji’s in 1290 AD. Their rebellion was welcomed by the non-Turkish sections in the nobles.
The Khilji dynasty was named after a village in Afghanistan but they were actually Turkish in origin.

Jalaluddin Khilji: 1290-1320

>> Jalaluddin Khilji was the founder of Khilji dynasty. He was seventy years of age when he ascended the throne. He was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who believed that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed, and that since the vast majority of Indians were Hindus, India could not be a truly Islamic state.

>> Jalaluddin tried to win the goodwill of the nobility by a policy of tolerance. Although Jalaluddin retained the earlier nobility in his administration, but the rise of Khiljis to power ended the monopoly of nobility of slaves to high offices.

>> Jalaluddin was a pious Muslim and desired to consider himself as Mujahid fi Sabilillah (fighter in the path of god).

>> He constructed his capital at Kilokhri, from where he ruled for nearly six years. Though he faced several attacks from the Mongols, his brave front and smart negotiations led to the defeat of the Mongols. He avoided harsh punishments, even to those who revolted against him. He not only forgave them but at times even rewarded them to win their support. However, people considered him to be a weak sultan.

>> The most significant event of Jalaluddin Khalji reign was the invasion of Devagiri by his son in law Alauddin Khilji who was also his nephew. Ala-ud-din Khilji successfully invaded Devagiri and accumulated surplus wealth. He killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and ascended the throne.

Alauddin Khalji: 1296-1316

>> Alauddin Khalji was second and most powerful ruler of the Khilji dynasty. He wanted to become a second Alexander and conquer the world. Alauddin had two victorious expeditions during the reign of Jalaluddin. The successful expedition proved that Alauddin was an able military commander and efficient organiser.

>> In July 1296 AD, he murdered his uncle and father-in-law Jalaluddin Khilji and crowned himself as the Sultan. Alauddin decided to revive Balban’s policies of autocratic governance. He also faced, a few rebellions in succession during the early years of his rule.

>> He was the first Turkish sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed ‘Kingship Knows no Kinship’. 

>> In order to avoid the problems created by the nobles, Alauddin issued 4 ordinances. The Ist ordinance aimed at the condiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands. By the IInd ordinance Alauddin reorganized the spy system. The IIIrd ordinance prohibited the use of wine. The IVth ordinance issued by Alauddin laid down that nobles should not have social gathering and they should not inter-marry without his permission.

>> Many forts were built by him and the most important of them was Alai fort. He also constructed the Alai Darwaja, the entrance gate of Qutub Minar. He also built the palace of thousand pillars called Hazar sutun.

>> Realisation of land revenue in cash enabled Alauddin to pay his soldiers in cash. He was the first sultan to do so.

>> Alauddin Khalji assumed the title of Sikandar-e-Sani (Alexander the Great) and made if imprinted on his coins. Alauddin had ambition to introduce a new religion, but abandoned the idea on the advice of his faithful friend Alla-UI-Mulk.

>> In 1303, Alauddin attempted to conquer Warangal but army of Kakatiya dynasty defeated him. Ramchandra Dev was the ruler of Devagiri at the time of Alauddin Khalji’s invansion. Malik Kafur looted Devagiri (1307) and took Ramchandra Dev including his relatives to Delhi. Alauddin behaved well with Ramchandra Dev and gave him title of ‘Rai Rayan’.

>> During the regime of Alauddin Khilji, Khalisa land was developed on a large scale. Alauddin Khalji fixed land revenue to one-half of the produce. The public distribution system was introduced by Alauddin Khalji, during Sultanate period.

>> During Alauddin period Sindhu (Indus) river was the border between Delhi sultanant and Mongol.

>> He was patron of art and learning, Amir Khusrau, the poet-musician was his favorite court poet.

>> In 1316, after death of Alauddin, Malik Kafur, called Hajardinari seized the throne. Before Kafur died, he nominated Shihabuddin (Alauddin’s 6 year old prince) as King but imprisoned the eldest prince Mubarak Khan. Kafur was killed by the loyalists of the royal family of Alauddin.
 
Architecture:

Famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza, Hauz Khas, Mhal Hazaar Satoon, Jamait Khana Mosque, Alai Minar and constructed a new capital at Siri.

Military Reforms:

1st sultan to have a large permanent standing army & paid in cash from royal treasury.
Innovated: Chehra and Dagh system.
Chehra – detailed description of each soldier
Dagh– Branding of horses.

Land Revenue administration

• Revenue was half of the produce & was based on land under cultivation.
• First ruler to fix land revenue in cash. It enabled him to pay his soldiers in cash.
• Biswa was a standard unit of measurement. Imposed one fifth of the produce and along with it house tax (Grahi) and pasture tax (Chari).
• Abolished Kismat-i-Khuti (Headman’s cess). Confiscated religious endowments and free lands (Inam and Wakt).
• Mukadam & khuts had to pay taxes.
• He created the post of Mustakraj to collect revenue.
• He brought the area surrounding Delhi directly under the state for revenue purposes. Thus, the Iqta system was not applied there.

Architecture

• In 1296, Alauddin constructed the Hauz-i-Alai.
• Alauddin built the Siri Fort & camped in Siri during the Mongol invasion in 1303.
• He built the Qasr-i-Hazar Situn palace at the Siri fort.
• Alauddin constructed the Alai Darwaza – entrance gate to Qutub Minar.
• Market Reforms
• Fixed cost of all commodities. For this purpose, he set up 3 markets – one for food grains, second for cost and third for horses, slaves etc.
• He appointed Shahna-I-Mandi, Naib-I-Riyasat & Diwan-I-Riyasat to keep a check on these markets.
• He also received daily reports of markets from Barids (intelligence officers) and munhiyans (secret spies).

Mubarak Khan: 1316-20

>> After the death of Kafur, Mubarak Khan was freed from prison and worked as regent for Shihabuddin. He awarded his lover Mubarak Hassan authority over army and palace guards, who soon obtained full control over Sultan’s palace. Mubarak Hassan was given the title Khusrau Khan by the Sultan and within months Khusrau killed Mubarak Khan and assumed the title of Nasirduin in mid-1320.

Khusrau Khan: 1320

>> Khusrau Khan was killed by Ghazi Malik, governor of Dipalpur, when he tried to oppose rebellion by Ghazi and his son Fakhruddin Jauna. This brough the end of Khilji dynasty and established the Tughlaq dynasty on the throne of Delhi.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1412 AD)

The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320 AD and this dynasty ruled till AD 1412. Ghiyas-ud-din rose to an important position in the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
However, after a brief rule Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq died in AD 1325 and his son Muhammad Tughlaq ascended to the throne. Under the Tughlaqs, the Delhi Sultanate was further consolidated.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-25 AD)

>> Ghiyas-ud-din tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of Tughlaq dynasty. He was a good administrator and an efficient ruler. Though he was a devout muslim, he never persecuted the Hindus.

>> Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq is also known for the famous Tughlaqabad fort in Delhi. He improved the means of communication, transport and the postal system during his reign. He is known for subjugating Warangal and Bengal.

>> Ghiyas-ud-din tughlaq died in an accident after which his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq was ascended to the throne.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-51 AD)

>> After the death of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq in 1325 AD, his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq or Jauna Khan came to power.

>> He was one of the most controversial ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. He introduced many ambitious schemes and experiments but most of them proved to be a failure. He was a learned scholar of Arabic and Persian and possesed tolerance in religious affair.

Reforms

Transfer of Capital:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted his capital from Delhi to Deogir in the Deccan and renamed it as Daulatabad.
• Many nobles, religious men and craftsmen shifted to the new capital. Muhammad bin Tughlaq built a road from Delhi to Deogir and also setup rest houses for the people.
• Many people died because of rigourous travelling and heat. This caused great hardship and heavy financial loss to the people. Within five months, the whole scheme was given up as the capital was shifted back to Delhi.

Introduction of Token Currency:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced Bronze coins or Jittal of the same value as Silver coins (Tanka) to overcome the shortage of silver in India. He ordered that Bronze coins to be accepted as equivalent to the Tanka.
• According to Barani, the King was forced to introduce the token currency as the government’s treasury was empty due to Sultan’s policy of conquests and boundless generosity.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq did not keep a check or reserve the right to issue new coins for state and people began to mint token currency in their houses. The large scale of duplicate and forged coin came into market circulation. Consequently, the value of Bronze coins declined sharply and were rejected by the people which further resulted in loss of trade. The forged minting caused tremendous loss to the royal treasury. The bronze coinage remained in circulation for three years from AD 1329-1332. The government was finally forced to recall the bronze Jittal coins and issue gold and silver coins or Tanka for exchange.

Increase of taxes in Ganga Yamuna Doab:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land taxes in the Ganga and Doab region to meet the expenses of his army.
• Many farmers revolted against Muhammad bin Tughlaq as they were not able to pay the increased revenue due to famine in the region. Finally, Muhammad bin Tughlaq nullified his order.
• Khurasan expedition:
• The Khorasan expedition was the controversial project of Muhammad bin Tughlaq which he undertook in 1330-31 AD. The exact geographical location of the expedition was unclear. However, Barani believed it was in Iraq. Muhammad bin Tughlaq raised huge army for the expedition in the region of Khorasan. It is said that the Khorasan expedition was abandoned as the friendly ties were established between Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Tarmashirin.
• According to Barani, a part of Khorasan army was sent to Qarachil. The project began in 1337-39 AD. The region of Qarachil lies in mid of Himalayas in Kangra district.
• According to Ibn Battuta, the expedition of Qarachil was mainly done to prevent Chinese encroachment in Rajput regions.
• This expedition proved to another major failure of Muhammad bin Tughlaq which lead to immeasurable loss in resources and lead to discontent among the people and Sultanate army.

Agriculture Reform:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq established the all new Department of Agriculture known as ‘Diwan-i-Kohi’. He appointed the minister of Agriculture called Amir-i-kohi, to look after the entire range of issues related to the agriculture sector.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered to provide agricultural loan ‘Takavi’ to farmer. Peasants were provided with financial support to help in arranging seeds for cultivation. The main objective of the Agriculture department was to increase the cultivation of land and enhance the productivity of farm produce.
• Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq was the most learned ruler among all the sultans of Delhi sultanata.
• Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq issued the new coins, which was called Dinar, by Ibn Battuta.
• The detailed description of the postal system is obtained from chronicle journey of Ibn Battuta.
• Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq was the first among all sultans of Delhi who participated in public celebrations of Hindus, especially Holl.
• On the death of Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq, Badayuni wrote, the king was freed from his people and they from their king.
• It was during the time of Firuz that Jizyah became a separate tax. Earlier it was a part of land revenue.

Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88 AD)

>> After the demise of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, his cousin Feroz Shah Tughlaq became the next sultan of Tughlaq dynasty. Feroz Shah Tughlaq had the support of the nobles and the theologians. He was a kind man who did not favour harsh punishments. He cancelled the loans of peasants which had been advanced by his predecessor.

>> Feroz Shah Tughlaq established Diwan-i-Khairat (charity department) and Diwan-i-Bandagan (department of slaves) and also made Iqtadari system hereditary. He developed royal factories called Karkhanas in which thousand of slaves were employed.

>> His reign is also known for plenty of public works. Feroz Shah Tughlaq constructed canals for irrigation and established four new towns – Jaunpur, Hisar, Fatehabad and Firozabad. About three hundred new towns in different locations were built during his reign. He did close to 845 public works during his regime.

>> He was gentle towards peasantry. He destroyed all public records of farmer debts to give clean chit to farmers.

>> Feroz Shah Tughlaq showed intolerance towards Hindu and further imposed the Jizya tax on the Brahmins. During his reign many Hindu temple and idols were destroyed.

>> Feroz Shah Tughlaq established free hospital called as lDar-ul-Shafa’ for the poor. He moved one of the Ashokan pillars from its original place and erected it in Delhi.

>> Feroz Tughluq was the first ruler who took steps to have Hindu religious works translated from Sanskrit into Persian.

>> Feroz Tughluq was the first sultan of Delhi to have levied Haqq-i-Sharb or irrigation tax.

>> Feroz Tughluq was the first ruler to organize Haj pilgrimage from state exchequer.

>> Feroz Shah Tughlaq was the last great ruler of Delhi Sultanate. His policy of intolerance against Hindu made him less popular and unfavourable to the Hindu community.
 
Nasiruddin Muhammad (1390-1398)

>> He was the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.

>> Taimur’s invasion (1398) during his reign weakened the Delhi Sultanate. When Timur entered Delhi Sultanate there was no opposition. He withdrew from India in 1399. Delhi sultanate disintegrated towards the beginning of 15th century and no independent states were set up. E.g. Malwa and Gujarat etc.

>> The Tughlaq empire came to an end in 1412.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 CE)

>> The Sayyid claimed to be the descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

>> After Timur attacked Delhi in 1398, he appointed Khizr Khan as the Governor of Multan. Khizr Khan captured Delhi and established the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.

Khizr Khan (1414-21)

>> He ruled as the Rayat-i-Ala (vassal) of the Timurids. Khizr khan was the founder of Sayyid Dynasty.·       

>> He didn’t take the title of Sultan but took small titles such as Masnad-i-Aali (Most High Post) and continued to mint coins in the name of previous Tughlaq rulers.

Mubarak Shah (1421-34)

>> Succeeded in his father’s small kingdom.·        

>> Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi during his rule.      

>> Established a new town Mubarakabad on the banks of the Yamuna River.

 Alam Shah (1445-1450)

>> Alam Shah, was the last ruler of Sayyid Dynasty, abdicated his small kingdom and retired to Budaun, U.P.·   

>> Bahlol Lodhi (the governor of Sirhind in Punjab) captured Delhi in 1451.

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi: 1451-88

>> Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of the the Lodhi dynasty in 1451 AD.

>> The major achievement of Bahlul Lodi reign was the eventual annexation of the Jaunpur kingdom. Bahlul Lodi extended his territories over Gwalior, Jaunpur and upper Uttar Pradesh. He also annexed entire Sharqi kingdom and was known to issue the Bahloli coins.

>> After the death of Bahlol Lodhi, Sikandar Lodhi ascended to the throne.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517)

>> He was a contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of Gujrat and Rana Sanga of Mewar.

>> He founded the city Agra and transferred the capital from Delhi to Agra.

>> He abolished the octroi duty on grains and established a new measurement of the yard called the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.

>> Sikandar was orthodox and a bigot king. He reimposed the Jizya on Hindus.

>> He was a poet of repute, composed under the pen-name of Gulruk.

>> Sikandar Lodhi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526)

>> He was the last Lodhi Sultan of Delhi Sultanate.

>> Ibrahim was defeated in 1526 at the first Battle of Panipat fought against Babur.
This marked the end of the Lodhi Dynasty and the rise of the Mughal Empire in India
India Under Delhi Sultanate.

Early-Medieval Period (650-1206)

NCERT